Saturday, 7 March 2009
Thursday, 5 March 2009
阅读摘录：英国史笔记--1
英国史笔记（一）
要学好英语，必须懂一点英国史；要了解西方文明，也必须懂一点英国史。最近，我正好在读《为什么是英语》（戴问天，东方出版社，2003），我就以这本书为蓝本，做一点简单的英国史笔记。
1.
根据考古发现，在30万年前，英国就有人类活动。但是，最早有史可查的英国居民是凯尔特人（Celt）。
凯尔特人是一个什么样的民族呢？
可以这样说，当时（公元前一世纪）欧洲最高等的民族是罗马人。罗马人的外面住着日尔曼人，罗马人认为他们是野蛮人。而日尔曼人的外面住着凯尔特人，可见后者在罗马人眼里，大概属于“野蛮人中的野蛮人”。
2.
公元前55年，罗马统帅恺撒攻打高卢（今法国）时，发现海峡这边的凯尔特人得到海峡那边的凯尔特人的帮助。
于是，他决定跨过海峡去教训那些不知好歹的野蛮人。
这是不列颠岛第一次出现在欧洲历史中：公元前55年。
3.
恺撒把不列颠称为Britannia，这是一个凯尔特人的词汇，据考证，意思是“彩绘身体的人”。从此，Britannia就进入了拉丁词汇，引进英语以后被简化为“Britain”。而住在不列颠岛上的那些居民，被罗马人称为“Briton”。
请注意，在法国有一个地名叫“布列塔尼”（Brittany），位于法国的最西面，与英国隔海相望。这清楚的表明了海峡两岸的凯尔特人当年的联系。
4.
恺撒在公元前55年的秋天，登陆不列颠岛。渡海过程中遇到了风暴，登陆后遭到了土著的抵抗，导致进入冬天后，他不得不把军队撤回高卢。
第二年的夏天，他再一次登陆不列颠。这次比较成功，但是他也没在这个岛上久留，依然撤了回来。
总之，恺撒的两次登陆，只是让罗马人知道海的那边有那么一个岛而已。
我有一个朋友现在正在牛津，那我就顺便说说牛津。罗马的史书里，也提到了牛津，说那里是两块大沼泽，恺撒的士兵嫌湿气太重，避而行之。
5.
将近100年后，罗马人终于又想起了不列颠岛。
公元43年，罗马皇帝克劳狄乌斯率领4万人的罗马军团入侵不列颠。从此，罗马开始在不列颠驻军。
公元78－84年间，不列颠正式成为罗马的一个边疆省（frontier province）。
当时，岛上的凯尔特人大概有200~300万，罗马人有6万。罗马人讲拉丁语，不列颠人讲凯尔特语。
6.
不列颠北边的凯尔特人经常反抗罗马人，而罗马人又没有足够的兵力征服全岛。
于是，公元122年，罗马皇帝哈德良决定在罗马人实际控制的边界修筑一条防线。这被称为“哈德良长城”。
20年后，罗马人试图扩大地盘，于是在“哈德良长城”北面又修了一条“安东尼长城”。可是修好以后，发现没有足够的兵力去驻守，不得不又退回“哈德良长城”。
这个时间点，可以大致被看作罗马由攻转守，由盛到衰的转折点。
7.
伦敦是罗马人创造的城市。据说，这是罗马人比照罗马在台伯河上的位置而选择的地点，泰晤士河在这里正好宽到海船可以进入，窄到可以造桥。
8.
进入公元5世纪，罗马帝国迅速衰弱，它再也无力维持不列颠的驻军了。
公元410年，罗马军队从不列颠全部撤离。
公元476年，罗马帝国被日耳曼人灭亡。
9.
罗马人撤离以后，岛上的不列颠人发现，他们自己无法抵抗边境上凯尔特人的骚扰。于是，向罗马求助，但此时罗马已经爱莫能助了。于是，不列颠人不得已请日耳曼人来帮忙。谁知请神容易送神难，日耳曼人来了以后，就不想走了。
最早定居下来的日耳曼部落是“日德兰人”（Jutes）。以后，盎格鲁人（Angles）和萨克森人（Saxons）人，以及其他一些部落也相继登陆不列颠。连伦敦也落入了萨克森人的手中。
From:
Thursday, 12 February 2009
How to make yogurt
Yogurt is a healthy food that can be made at home. One way to make it is to first buy some yogurt from a store or purchase dry yogurt culture. Add two small spoonfuls of the yogurt to two cups of milk. This will be the starter for your own yogurt. A cup in the United States is two hundred forty milliliters.
When making yogurt, it is very important to have clean equipment, clean hands and good temperature control.
Pour eight cups of milk into a large cooking pot. Heat the milk to eighty-five degrees Celsius. Then cool the milk quickly to forty-three degrees. To do this, you can put the cooking pot in cool water.
Keep the yogurt at forty-three degrees and add one-half cup of the starter. The remaining starter can be kept for later use. If you want a thicker yogurt, you can also add one-third of a cup of dry milk.
Cover the pot and keep it at a temperature of forty to forty-five degrees Celsius for four to six hours. After that, your homemade yogurt is ready. It can be left at room temperature for up to twelve hours if you like a stronger taste.
You can add fruit, nuts, honey or spices.
Yogurt can be made with milk from cows or other animals including goats, sheep, water buffalo and camels. It can be spelled y-o-g-u-r-t or y-o-g-h-u-r-t. More information on making it can be found at Web sites such as practicalaction.org.
Now, from yogurt, we move on to another ancient and related food -- cheese.
Parmigiano-Reggiano is the king of Italy's cheeses. People worldwide use it on pasta and other foods. The traditional Italian cheese is produced on several hundred farms around the northern city of Parma.
Cheese makers age it for at least twelve months in large rounds called wheels.
Parmigiano-Reggiano producers say now they are struggling with the financial crisis. Sales of the cheese and a lower-priced version, Grana Padano, are down in Italy. Prices for producers have dropped. And low-priced copies are on the market.
Now comes a rescue plan for the industry. Italy's government has made available enough money to buy two hundred thousand wheels of Parmigiano-Reggiano. Charitable organizations then will give the cheese -- more than sixty million dollars' worth -- to poor people.
And that's the VOA Special English Development Report, written by Karen Leggett with additional reporting by Sabina Castelfranco in Parma.
When making yogurt, it is very important to have clean equipment, clean hands and good temperature control.
Pour eight cups of milk into a large cooking pot. Heat the milk to eighty-five degrees Celsius. Then cool the milk quickly to forty-three degrees. To do this, you can put the cooking pot in cool water.
Keep the yogurt at forty-three degrees and add one-half cup of the starter. The remaining starter can be kept for later use. If you want a thicker yogurt, you can also add one-third of a cup of dry milk.
Cover the pot and keep it at a temperature of forty to forty-five degrees Celsius for four to six hours. After that, your homemade yogurt is ready. It can be left at room temperature for up to twelve hours if you like a stronger taste.
You can add fruit, nuts, honey or spices.
Yogurt can be made with milk from cows or other animals including goats, sheep, water buffalo and camels. It can be spelled y-o-g-u-r-t or y-o-g-h-u-r-t. More information on making it can be found at Web sites such as practicalaction.org.
Now, from yogurt, we move on to another ancient and related food -- cheese.
Parmigiano-Reggiano is the king of Italy's cheeses. People worldwide use it on pasta and other foods. The traditional Italian cheese is produced on several hundred farms around the northern city of Parma.
Cheese makers age it for at least twelve months in large rounds called wheels.
Parmigiano-Reggiano producers say now they are struggling with the financial crisis. Sales of the cheese and a lower-priced version, Grana Padano, are down in Italy. Prices for producers have dropped. And low-priced copies are on the market.
Now comes a rescue plan for the industry. Italy's government has made available enough money to buy two hundred thousand wheels of Parmigiano-Reggiano. Charitable organizations then will give the cheese -- more than sixty million dollars' worth -- to poor people.
And that's the VOA Special English Development Report, written by Karen Leggett with additional reporting by Sabina Castelfranco in Parma.
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